posted 02-27-2012 04:54 PM            

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The functioning of the gold and silver guilds in the Netherlands is little known. The most important reason for this is a law in 1807 which provided that, when the guilds were abolished, all records of the former guilds should be destroyed. The remaining sources consist of ordinances, edicts, and some pieces of the members or accounting files. Another source comes from the State Archives. Here are the records of the Coin Room Generality stored. Because these mintmasters their task very seriously and all their dealings with the guilds still framers, their archive is the largest source of information about the Dutch silversmiths. These sources form the basis for our image of a Saint Eligius or Eloy guild, named after the patron saint of goldsmiths. Each city had its own guild, with some different rules and regulations.

From the archives of the Mints of the Generality Coin Room we know the names of elected blankets since 1664 in The Hague and other cities in Holland, Friesland, West Friesland and Groningen. The Mint House had the habit of an annual copy of the edict of 1661 with an admonitory letter to send to the various guilds. The signing of the returned confirmations we know (with small gaps) the names of the newly elected Blankets. After some time went this year letter also indicate what they would use, so from about 1685 on this certainty.

In 1745 the Mint asked for lists of all guildsmen. In 1768 it happened again and was also asked to follow the newly adopted masters to report. Although not every guild has stopped this. Yet there came to the end of the 18th century a large number of reports.

Because the guild archives mostly disappeared, it is difficult to say how big the guilds. For a number of places including The Hague in 1664, 1745, 1768, 1798, the numbers of master goldsmiths indicated in the archives of the Generality Mint House of Holland. The Hague in 1664 about 80, in 1745 49 in 1768 59 and 46 in 1798, gold and silversmiths. These numbers have to be read with caution. Thus, in 1745 the active members not counted in 1768, however, only the active members counted. These data can be expanded with information from other sources in some places.

About the daily affairs can unfortunately not reflect anymore. The most tangible of the Hague silversmiths' guild that still exists is the guild house in 1650. The guild house of the gold and silversmiths at Parliament Buildings could be because there the checks in the name of the city took place. (See Figure 18)

The emergence
The appeal of precious metals is one of the oldest surviving crafts. The processing of gold or silver to make luxury items to make all happened 4000 BC. in Asia Minor. During ancient times it was by the Greeks and Romans. Pliny describes in his Naturalis historia all about the use of gold and silver, he makes a distinction between gold and silversmiths. After the conversion to Christianity of the West were mainly liturgical objects of gold and silver. In the Middle Ages after gold, silver also a generally accepted method of payment.

During the Middle Ages worked alongside monks also appeared in the gold-and silversmith workshops of the monasteries. The importance of silver made of silver-and goldsmith one of the leading professions in medieval society. In the 12th century wrote Theophilus, a monk, a treatise on silver and goldsmiths. He already makes this distinction between the gold and silversmith. Later in the Middle Ages, when the urban culture of the craft comes to fruition and it is independent of ecclesiastical influence. City authorities, citizens and official institutions were also ordered silver, silver was a good investment, by adding a nice shape to spell could also flaunt. All artisans who form a significant part of the urban structure determined, united over time in official institutions, which later grew into guilds. During the Middle Ages the guilds grew into organizations with their own capital, own building and governance. The first concern was the protection of the guilds in the Guild craftsmen and artisans and maintaining the quality of the products made.

The inception of the gold and silver guild of The Hague or to be the St. Eloysgilde (the patron of blacksmiths and goldsmiths) is not known. The first Hague objects with brands (a maker's mark, local brand and a year letter) date from the 15th century.

The organizational
Traditionally, the government, both the state and the city, like control over the gold and silversmiths. This control was important for the government because the gold and silver as a general payment and barter was used. This direct link between silver and money is only in the course of the 19th century gradually lost. One can therefore say that between silver coins and silver objects were actually not much difference, either, the value determined by the weight and alloys, both could easily realizable. In times of emergency was silver city melted into coins.

The guild was a strict organization saw to it that the rules are followed. The city was thus a central point for all silver and goldsmiths in the city. In The Hague, the board consisted of seven persons, the dean, the dean of the previous year, the judge and four captains, together they were the seven men named. The judge worked the blanket, the old blanket, the judge and the supernumereur. This was a separate function, he was not one of the captains, he helped the board with the daily tasks, even when adopted. The whole was also dean of the college and captains or blanket and jurors called. Formerly the guild chose its officers, later they were chosen by the city. Two people were annually by the guild for each position nominated, the council decided which candidate got the job. Only in The Hague, the board was changed to St. Cartharina (November 25), in other cities, the new government elected on St. Eloy's day (November 30). The guild directors were not above the other gold-and silversmiths. They were chosen each year and were thus subject to the other members of the guild. On the other hand were the guild members who were elected or nominated to serve on that task in the new administration not refuse, unless the city council granted exemption. The position of chief was an honorable job, but it was as chief financial flexibility is needed. The revenue of the guild consisted of the annual dues of members of the guild and fines. In addition, the blanket and judge responsible for the purchase and sale of coal goldsmith, a special type of coal, of which the profits to the coffers of the guild went.

In the prosperous years of the guilds, especially in the 17th century, capital banquets done, with the guild silver came from the cabinets and lotteries were organized. It was also during this time the guild house on the Binnenhof purchased. Many meals were paid by the members themselves, for example, after appointment as dean or chief, or after completing the master thesis.

When irregularities were occurring among other notarial archives and government information recorded about the guild. It appears the guild board in 1656 to have acted arbitrarily. A large number guildsmen is against revolted under the leadership of Laurens Ravens, Gerrit van der Donck and Daniel Exchange. What exactly has taken place we do not know. In 1681 and in the early 18th century seem the blanket and the captains have to misbehave by, among others not to visit these shops to check for unmarked pieces. They were also careless with enrolling new masters in eedboek. These complaints are listed in the archives of the magistrate. In addition, other symptoms of the guild in the minutes of the city relating to peddlers, "uytdragers ',' sword sweeps" and other people who sold silver in the city but were not members of the guild.

In 1795 came an end to the established procedure of the guilds. A bloodless revolution, the Republic was transformed into a French model is established, the Batavian Republic. Under the maxim "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" was the old guild system has no place, and the system was therefore soon (officially in 1798) abolished. The work was temporarily by so-called provisional board, which in most cases were the same as the last guild directors.

About the daily business is one with little information in these archives.

The functions and responsibilities
Like all other guilds was the gold and silver guild a community of interest, only those who belonged to the guild if the profession. The main functions of the guild were: first, the training of new gold-and silversmiths. Second, the adoption of the silver one of the most important tasks of the guild. Thirdly for the silversmiths' guild made it possible to come out. Fourthly, mutual resolve disputes within the guild. Fifthly, the guild arranged the funeral of deceased guildsmen and existed the possibility of support for ailing guildsmen and their widows. Finally wearing the guild (the Reformation) for ensuring the operation of an altar in the main church, which many guilds even later with the name of a saint were indicated. Furthermore, the guild forbade others the profession within their own jurisprudence.

The justification of the guild stopped at the determination of the content that the government was determined. One had no effect on the quality of the created objects. When a master silversmith had become, he was responsible for its products.

The exact description of the duties and rights of the Hague guild are in the Annex to the text of the edict of 1661, which it listed. This certification and ordinance that formed after the General on the advice of masters of the mints of the States of Holland and West Friesland new rules for all cities in Holland have drawn up after repeatedly complained about abuses. The first provision in this area is on 2 February 1503 by the Philip Schoonen issued. This provision arising from a dispute between the inspector-General of Holland Ingel the Luwere and Dutch cities.

The training
The guild supervised the training to master. There are few details known of this training. When a boy had been identified for which craft he wanted to be trained, he was made a living with a master. The age at which this occurred varied over the centuries. In Leiden different apprentice contracts found, modification of the ages vary from 6 ½ to 36 years. But these are exceptions, especially around the ages were 11.7 to 14 years old. The duration of the apprenticeship was in The Hague at least four years and was determined by the guild. The leather money was quite high, sometimes up to several hundred dollars per year in the 17th century. The silversmith undertook the boy to train as a silversmith and his board and lodging needs. The apprentice had to learn to design, jewelry set, enamelling, hammer and drift. The skills learned varied with the specialty of the teacher. The boy worked long hours. About the conditions under which a boy in a gold or silversmith was apprenticed, very little is known. After the apprenticeship was the boy who now than at twenty, his masterpiece do. Usually it was at first apprentice in an established master. In Leiden were few immediately after the discharging of their official apprenticeship master directly. They were apprentices or servants of this group is nothing in the ordinances of the Hague guild. In several German cities during this period it was obliged to travel elsewhere to further the craft to learn, this was called the "Wander Jahre". Studies in Leiden, this use also emerged, ratings from other cities and from abroad working in Leiden. That also happened with Leiden companions was untraceable. The Hague is nothing known about it. That this could go to fairly large numbers we see in Groningen where the servants had their own guild.

The test consisted of single-handedly producing a well defined object, which is then judged by the guild board. When an aspiring master this succeeded, he was fully master and gildenlid. It was incorporated as a brother in the guild and could establish themselves as an independent master. First was the new member admission fee for the guild pay for the exercise of the profession and to any cashier to be. This amount varied, the most beneficial was the son of a master who already was a member of the Guild (NLG 12, - and fl 20, -), the most expensive membership was a journeyman from outside the united provinces (FL 100 , - and fl 100, -). When all masterpieces, but from outside the city came, we had to do a new masterpiece in the new town site.

Completion of the master thesis was the ultimate test, we found high demands on the prospective member in the field of competence. Also had to invest heavily in the new master painter. He had the material he used to pay during the test. Furthermore he had the "examination" of a hot meal and refreshments provided. During the 17th and 18th centuries there was much criticism of the masterpiece, but most guilds maintained the requirements of the masterpiece that often in the 16th century were identified. The phenomenon of a masterpiece is in the majority against guilds.

Now he was full silversmith, who was in town and establish a workshop open. For this he had to invest further. First it was necessary tools, he bought this from a colleague or from the estate of a deceased brother guild. He also had a bench anvil and a space. All investments together, made it not easy for the young silversmith. Partly because of these high costs, especially in the 18th century saw many companions rid master. They continued their lives as a servant to work and avoided not only the high cost of mastery, but also the risks of a business.

Judging
Silver and gold coins were easy in daily use because the value was paced and generally accepted. In addition, the coins on both sides of an image so it will not play with it. On the contrary, a silver object realization wanted to make was to not only determine the weight, but also uncertainty about their content. That means one must know which part of the weight of pure silver and base from which additions exist. This addition is necessary because in its pure form silver is too soft to make utensils out of it. It also opens a possibility for abuse, because the accuracy of the alloy was difficult to control for the uninitiated. The silversmith had a position of trust with its customers. Why should the new master silversmiths at their entry into the guild a prescribed oath which literally referred to the minimum content of the materials to be used. (See Figure 19) Only the Cashiers put this exam and oath so they could determine the alloy. The members did not get to determine the alloy. That was not needed as they worked with silver or antique silver coin, which is marked, so the alloy of the silver that they used was fixed.

To the citizens, who handed in their silver coins or objects to an object of letting a silversmith, to protect against fraud in the silver content, the city guarantees. In order to be able to guarantee a system is needed in order to allow each piece of silver was to relate to a silversmith and an array chamber. In the course of time this is a system of markings developed to operate at each piece was beaten.

The earliest silver objects now known, have no marks. The word of the silversmith was still sufficient guarantee. The first guarantee brand that emerged was the maker's mark, a stamp which the silversmith indicates that he or she has made and guarantees the used silver content. The maker's mark usually consisted of the initials of the master or an imagination of his name. After the city itself is going to give guarantees about the silver content. In 1382 there were already ordinances and edicts issued by the city of Utrecht with rules where the gold and silversmiths had to keep to themselves. The city proposed to judges. The silversmith was obliged already marked with the maker's mark objects hither bring. The members of the guild were the judges. The two blankets and four judges of the Hague guild held on Wednesday and Friday sitting in the selection room in the guild house. The blankets and the judges were at least twice per month the shops in town unannounced visits to all the silver pieces before they were sold at the right level to investigate. But during a visit was not examined everything, but samples were taken. Content was found to be high enough then hit the judge, the city stabbing (a stork in The Hague) added. To find out who can for a bad piece of silver was responsible, had all their master silversmiths character in a copper plate store. This record was held by the guild and the guild was in chest in the guild room saved.

In practice, the judges themselves goldsmiths; they were members of the guild board and also rotated annually. To now be able to record who the city stabbing at a piece of silver was beaten was a third mark necessary. They were made consecutive letters of the alphabet, these letters were referred to the year letters. When a new alphabet began, they changed the type of letter. On the day of St. Catharine, 30 november, exchanged at The Hague the board. (See Figure 20)

The practice
There are several regulations clearly indicate how the practice of judging and brands in the Netherlands was settled. (See Figure 21) The first known ordinance was enacted in 1382 in Utrecht. Here are two brands called the master sign and the city stabbing. Whether this practice was common in other cities, is not to go because there is very little silver from the 14th century remains. In the fifteenth century were drawn up in several cities local ordinances regarding the use of silver and gold. The first comprehensive document on precious metal that was not only locally, was a placard that was issued by Maximilian of Austria, the regent for the underage Duke of Burgundy Philip the Handsome. This document was valid in 1489 in Holland and Zeeland. It was determined that the (nearest) city would approve the silver and makes the city stabbing. The minimum quantity was 945/1000 determined. In 1503 Philip the Fair found themselves on a plaque to accurately control. Besides the city stabbing, all work must also be marked with a maker's mark and date letter. Silversmiths were only allowed to work in places with urban rights. This edict was the basis for all subsequent arrangements in the next three centuries were drawn. These regulations applied only course in the area in the duchy of Burgundy heard, where Holland include. On 13 april 1551 by Charles V in addition to the ordinance given. Robbert Earl of Leycester provisions of an ordinance on August 4, 1586 was published, two new levels for silver. The first level, the large variety, was on 11 medals and 8 grain set, the second level, the small variety, was set at 11 pence.

Thus, in the beginning of the seventeenth century in most places developed a system to approve the silver. This system worked well?

This method had a major concern. The control of the silver content by the directors of the guild done. This was logical because the determination of the silver content was accurate work that only a silversmith could run fast and well.

The determination of the content was done on the basis of the key or the stitch. Research by a key were a touchstone (Libyan stone) and a test needles. The Libyan stone has the property that when it differs with silver and gold alloys scratched it to recognize the different shades of white scratches. Test needles are flat discs, of which the lower part consists of silver. All the needles, however, have a different level, this is indicated on the needle. Makes one with the silver object a few strokes on the touchstone, and then also by pressing needles, can be compared to any region of the silver color matches the most. That is approximately the content that the object has too. (See Figure 22)

On old silver is often a zigzag-shaped slot. This slit has been made in order to obtain material of the article. This is necessary for the stitch key. The curl was gouged in a hollow, round wood coals laid on hot coals were placed, the same happened with a curl of the first silver content. Both curls were annealed, the molten material was side by side on a clean blue stone poured. Then, the colors are compared. The finest silver glows most white, more copper is added to the alloy, the darker the color. Finally, on suspicion of fraud, the entire object cut up and examined. If it is well proved, the damages paid.

The directors of the guild were not above the other gold-and silversmiths. They were chosen each year and were thus subject to the other members of the guild. It was not so inclined to the work of a colleague to reject, because next year he could be the judge. Furthermore, there was no good method to control the judges, making it easy and had free play could make the abuse situation.

In 1663 the situation in Holland was so out of hand that a new edict was issued. The guilds were protesting against this new poster because of the silversmith, demanded that he would take an oath in which he promised himself to keep to prescribed levels. In addition, there were the following changes are, firstly, there is again a high content was 935/1000 introduced, secondly, the pieces were of four marks now be provided. These were the maker's mark, the city stabbing (the stork The Hague), the date letter and a provincial inspection (the Dutch lion). (See Figure 23)

A third major change was the importation of a good control of the local judges. The Generality Coin Room was supervising all the variety of rooms. The members of the mint room, the Mint, had themselves no unprejudiced silversmiths and therefore could give a verdict on the labels. If senior officials had enough weight to guilds or city governments to enforce their instructions to follow. Furthermore, the names Mints samples by different silversmiths in buying items and then analyze. Measured the levels were too low, then got the guild on a letter. Most were the culprits individual silversmiths. Sometimes, however, were the board members themselves who have made mistakes in judging. This was a serious offense and was highly recognized. This is evident in the correspondence between the Hague guild and the Generality Currency Room on the wrong brands under the responsibility of Pieter van der Toorn on objects were made.

The new high content of the silver was large variety mentioned. The counterpart to this is the small variety, it was only once mentioned in the edict. The content for this label was in 1603 for Holland on 890/1000 and was already established in the edicts of Maximilian of Austria and Philip the Fair called. Cast and little work was made with this content. In practice, the silversmiths moved away from this little restriction. In the edict of 1661 were the rules of the small variety same as those already in the earlier rules were. Now there were three brands in each choice with small silver object beaten. A master sign, a city stabbing and the date letter (without provincial character) There are almost no objects from the 17th century with these brands noticed known.

Only around 1700 the Mint began to worry about the labels, especially on the small label were differences arise. In The Hague was often only the maker's mark on the small silver label is used. In 1733, a new edict of power in which the small selection at 833/1000 was recorded. This strength could only be used for articles of less than 30 grams. The small selection of work was the maker's mark, the city stabbing and the year letter repulsed. This and the previous poster from 1661 were only valid in Holland. None of the other provinces argued in the eighteenth century in a plaque. Well they started their own brands in store so there are four marks on the large variety of silver stood. The rules of Holland have been the norm in the Netherlands.

The nonviolent revolution in 1795 which the Republic was transformed into a state that the French model was set up, there came an end to the established guilds. In the new Batavian Republic was the motto "Liberty, Equality and Fraternity '. For the old guild system with a virtually autonomous guilds was no place therein. The guilds were formally abolished in 1798. The inspection of documents and other functions of the guilds was then provisionally done by so-called provisional board. Usually these were the last in the silversmiths' guild administration had been.

In 1800 an official scheme for the testing of gold and silver. There were three different contents introduced. The great variety (similar to Holland's large variety), the middle choice (equal to the Dutch small label) marked with maker's mark, city stabbing and twice the annual letter and a new small selection 780/1000, marked as the Dutch small label. There is rarely found these silver marks, so the question is whether the scheme is implemented.

In 1807 the Kingdom of Holland was ruled by Louis Napoleon. This issued in 1807 the new Act on the processing, importing and selling of gold and silver works, together with the fuss of Tax upon them 'out. This was the first act to the inspection of gold and silver objects for all the former provinces of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces and the Generality Lands centrally arranged.

It based the new law on "Loi du 19 Brumaire an VI 'with a centrally controlled testing. There were 42 places in the Netherlands preferred room set. This label rooms were located in places where formerly was also approved. The levels for silver were also changed and indicated in thousandths. The low level tokens or 833.33, 10/1000, the high content was 11 tokens 5 grains or 934.3 / 1000. The labels themselves changed, they knew in France with a hallmark, a sign of the label room with a number to indicate which choice chamber was responsible for the inspection, but no year letter. This year letter, it was held was such a part of the labels here in the Netherlands that it was added. The Dutch silversmiths wanted the judging room sign would be changed in the old mark that appeared on the city arms. The proposal did not make. However, they added an additional hallmark in the symbol of the city which was marked in an oval shield. Thus each subject received four brands: the maker's mark, the mark of the label room, the hallmark and date letter for the Netherlands was equal. The old Dutch levels were maintained, the great variety was marked with a crown, the small label with the number 10. To the new law had to be re-registered all the characters are masterpieces. Anyone for January 1, 1808 as foreman worked his master could sign without offering more to the judges. After this date had to be a test of skill in the keys, veneers and ally do. Men no longer looked at skills, something that was difficult to accept the silversmiths

Netherlands was not long in the Kingdom of Holland. In 1811 the Netherlands was incorporated into the French Empire. This meant that the French laws were introduced in the Netherlands. The number of preferential rooms was reduced to eleven. Also, the content was changed. By imperial decree in 1811 was the first grade at 950/1000 established grade and the second at 800/1000. The brands weeks significantly from the old Dutch approve: the maker's mark, the hallmark (a rooster with the numeral 1 in an oval) for the first level, a rooster with the number 2 in a square shield for the second grade, and an office stamp (a Man's in a round shield). In the office stamp was the choice chamber with a letter stated. The ancient city of labels which were derived

of the city arms and the date letter were no longer used.

This constitution did not take long for the Netherlands. In 1813, Napoleon was defeated and the Kingdom of the Netherlands was founded. William I went in his law drafted in 1813 out of the French regulations. The choice rooms remained, however, he changed the levels in the old Dutch levels. The first content went to 934/1000 and the second level to the 833/1000.

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posted 03-04-2012 09:08 AM            

many thanks for sharing this article!